Sound-Letter Knowledge

Definition:
Sound-letter knowledge comes into play once learning is focused not solely on spoken language but on writing the spoken language--words, letters--down. Sound-letter knowledge is the connection between the sound of letters and their orthography.
It includes, but is not limited to:
-letter names and their corresponding sounds
-how sounds and letters relate
-recognition of previously seen words
For example, meaningful words like "Mom, "Dad," "dog," "cat"

Sight-reading automatically words that have been committed to long-term memory. The word has to be generated by a student or else it would not be a sight word (would not be sight if a student repeated a word spoken by the teacher).
Sight word- word that has been committed to memory
High-frequency word- a word that is used most frequently in a language
*Sight words are not necessarily high-frequency words
For example, malicious is a sight word for me, but it is not used as frequently as the words "the" or "at."
Stages of sight word learning:
-Pre-alphabetic
~alphabetic knowledge not used during this stage. Words can be reproduced based on contextual clues or symbols (Ex. MacDonald's golden arches, etc.)
-Partial-alphabetic
~alphabetic knowledge is partially employed, using contextual clues as well as generally the first and last letter of the word.
-Full-alphabetic
~ have a working knowledge of phoneme-grapheme relationships and can make matches and decode them
-Consolidated-alphabetic
~focuses around spelling in chunks and the pronunciation of those chunks
-roots, affixes, onsets, rimes, syllables
~recognizes relationships and uses hierarchical decoding
-Automatic-alphabetic
~reading is proficient
~speed and automaticity in identifying new words
~most words in reader's sight vocabulary
~new words can be decoded
Reading Standard 1: Print-Sound Code (Reading and Writing Grade-by-Grade): addresses the standard across grades, citing specific phonological skills that students should gain by the end of each grade, such as phonemic awareness, for example. The pages that address this are pp.52-57 (Kindergarten), pp. 96-99 (First Grade), pp. 144-145 (Second Grade), and pp. 190-191 (Third Grade)

Cueing Systems:
Definition: In reading one uses clues or cueing systems from the structure of language to employ words that have different functions (determine the identity of words).
Cueing systems include:
Graphophonic (cues)- consist of the 26 letters and combinations of these letters (graphemes), the 44 sounds (phonemes) and the system of relationships among the letters and the sounds (phonics).
Ex. One knows that the "u" in "cut" is represented by the same sound "rut" (we see the "u" and we hear the same sound)
Semantic (cues)- these cues are based on the meaning of language, where the meaning of a word can be identified based on the nature of the sentence. For example, if a particular subject is being addressed, there is a schema with a word bank of associated words.
Syntactic (cues)- these cues refer to the order of words in clauses, sentences and phrases in terms of their grammatical value.

Stages of Spelling Development: (for more information on stages see literacy folder)
Stage 1: Emergent Spelling
(3-5-year-olds) Children learn:

• the distinction between drawing and writing
  
• how to make letters
• the direction of writing on a page
• some letter-sound matches

Stage 2: Letter-Name Spelling
(5-7-year-olds) Children learn:

• the alphabetic principle
• consonant sounds
• short-vowel sounds
• consonant blends and digraphs

Stage 3: Within-Word Pattern Spelling
(7-9-year-olds)

• long-vowel spelling patterns
• r-controlled vowels
• more complex consonant patterns
• diphthongs and other less common vowel patterns

Stage 4: Syllables and Affixes Spelling
(9-11-year-olds)

• inflectional endings
  
• rules for adding inflectional endings
• syllabication
• homophones

Stage 5: Derivational Relations Spelling
(11-14-year-olds)

• consonant alterations
• Latin affixes and root words
• Greek affixes and root words
• etymologies

Stages of writing development:

• Writing through drawing
• one of the first ways express their ideas through written form
  
• Writing through scribbling
• scribbles do not have to be letter-like
• scribbling can even take genres
• can be in column form--like a list
• can be in paragraph form--like a story
  
• Writing through letter-like forms & Writing through familiar units of letter strings
• scribbles begin looking more letter-like & some letters are produced
  
• strings of letter-like forms or strings of letters (that do not make words)
• Writing through estimated spelling
• writing includes more letters
• use knowledge of sounds to help in writing
  
• Ex. Child can write the first and last letter of her name
  
• Writing through conventional spelling
• children will begin to develop conventional spelling patterns with enough exposure to print in a variety of environments

Issues for Second Language Learners:
Many letters of other languages are represented with the graphemes as those of English, however, many are pronounced much differently. Also, other languages have accents, which cue the reader on correct pronunciation. It may be confusing to an SLL who has not made the connection that different letters will make the pronunciation different instead of accents.
Ex. An SLL whose first language is Spanish may be confused when he is corrected for mispronouncing the double "l" in a word as "y."

Associated Assessment: The Names Test


Duke, Nell. TE301, Section 003, Fall 2007, Michigan State University.

Fox, B. J. (2005). Phonics for the Teacher of Reading, 9th edition. Prentice Hall.

Kruse, A., Merkley D, Fyfe S. "Further validation and enhancement of the names test."
from Reading Teacher, (INTERNATIONAL READING ASSOCIATION, 1994) Vol. 48.
pp. 118-128 [11 pages] ISBN:00340561.

New Standards Primary Literacy Committee (2004). Reading and writing grade by grade: Primary literacy standards for kindergarten through third grade. Washington, DC: National Center for Education and the Economy.

Motivation

A common misconception among teacher candidates and probably in some educators is that the student is inherently motivated, and if she or he is not then a predetermined label of "slacker" can be tacked onto that student, stigmatizing her or him and thus creating a case of the self-fulfilling prophecy. The motivation level of students is hardly inherent, which makes it difficult for some teachers who are led to believe that students are biologically predisposed to motivation, among other things. It is important to motivate students because then they will become better learners and will master the skills needed for successful execution of homework and tasks. It is hoped that they will become lifelong self-motivators.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

• Intrinsic motivation is motivation that is inspired through the want to learn something, whether it is seen as useful or enjoyable. There is no tangible reward, only the sense of personal fulfillment based on completing a task, project, etc.
  
• Extrinsic motivation is motivation that is created through the promise of some tangible reward, such as candy, a good grade, a game, a field trip, etc. A student does not necessarily feel any personal growth from an extrinsic reward and may finish it quickly and halfheartedly in order to get the reward faster.
  

Motivation= expectancy x value

If a student expects to do well and knows what to expect in terms of difficulty and values the activity, event, etc. then he/she will be more motivated.

Associated Assessment: Writing attitudes survey-- resource I used on my study student. It was very important in helping me gauge where she is at in terms of being motivated, what motivates her, etc.

Duke, Nell. TE301, Section 003, Fall 2007, Michigan State University.

Kear, D. J., Coffman, G. A., McKenna, M. C., Ambrosio, A. L. (2000). Measuring attitude toward writing: A new tool for teachers. The Reading Teacher, 54, 10-23.

Weinstein, C. S., & Mignano, A. J. (2007). Elementary Classroom Management: Lessons from research and practice. Fourth Edition. New York: McGraw Hill.

Genre Knowledge

Definition & Value:
Genre- the resulting form of writing that stems from different writing purposes/goals. These stem from different social contexts that require different forms of writing.
Genre knowledge is the awareness and application of genres in a variety of print settings. It is important that students not only have an exposure to reading a variety of genres but that they are given plenty of time to experiment with writing and manipulating these genres as well. Also, genre knowledge is a big indicator of success in comprehension and composition. If a student is able to apply knowledge across many genres, they will have an easier time comprehending different forms of print as they have a wide-ranging knowledge about the many different uses of print. If, however, a student has mastered only the narrative genre, for example, they will have difficulty comprehending an informational text. The same goes for composition--a student needs to recognize and comprehend the many functions of genre (he/she does not need to know every one genre but needs to have a general sense of their existence and what they look like) before she can generate or compose her own genres of writing.

Functions of Genre:
-to inform
-to entertain
-to instruct (instruction manual)
-to remind
-to label
-to signal (traffic signs, grocery store section signs, etc.)
-to advertise & entitle

An alarming quotation:
"A current estimate is that, on average, less than 6 minutes a day is spent on information texts in first grades."
(Chapter 1: From Shopping Lists to Poetry: Forms and Functions of Written Language)


Writing Standard 2: Writing Purposes and Resulting Genres--these standards address each grade in terms of what the students should be demonstrating within certain genres.
Genres that are addressed in this standard include functional writing, narrative writing, report or informational writing, and producing and responding to literature.

Associated Assessment:
For an assessment on genre knowledge, I would use a portfolio assessment (an assessment that is drawn out over about three weeks). In the portfolio I would have students (I hope to be teaching eighth grade) displaying three genres that correspond to what they are studying in math, social studies, language arts, etc. For example, a personal narrative can be written relating a personal experience (moreover, relating a personal feeling associated with an experience) to something that happened in history. For example, some time when they helped someone like Harriet Tubman helped people. An informational piece can be written on how to make a hurricane or a thunderstorm. A piece of poetry can be written to accompany their study on haikus.

Duke, Nell. TE301, Section 003, Fall 2007, Michigan State University.

New Standards Primary Literacy Committee (2004). Reading and writing grade by grade: Primary literacy standards for kindergarten through third grade. Washington, DC: National Center for Education and the Economy.

The New Brunswick Group (D. Strickland, C. Snow, P. Griffin, M. S. Burns, P. McNamara) (2002). Preparing our teachers: Opportunities for better reading instruction. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press.

Composition/Writing

Definition & Value:
Composition is the process and product of creating an oral or written work. Composition refers to an extended piece of writing or speech, instead of just a word or two. It is important for students to work with their peers in addition to working alone.

Components of Writing:

• –Physical components (e.g., motor demands of typing or of handwriting)
• Background knowledge (what you know about affects what you can successfully write about)
• Process knowledge (understanding different parts of the process of writing)
  

-students should know these steps:
~planning/prewriting/brainstorming
~drafting
~getting response/feedback
~revising
~editing
~publishing
-this knowledge of the process of writing can be set parallel to the scientific method, in order for the students to be able to understand processes across subjects, and so that this idea is seen in many different writing genres.
\

• Strategic knowledge (e.g., knowing strategies for planning writing, for revising writing)
• Linguistic knowledge (e.g., vocabulary, sentence structure, spelling, punctuation)
• shows importance of syntax
  
• Genre knowledge (a kind of linguistic knowledge) (genre conventions, text structures, signal words and phrases, etc.)

• –Audience awareness (who is the audience for this writing and what would their needs be)
• Self-regulation (regulating their thinking, behaviors, and emotions in the writing process)
• Motivational components (e.g., perception of oneself as a writer, beliefs about the value of writing, persistence)

Issues for Second Language Learners:
For students whose second language is English, they will have prior linguistic knowledge in their first language which they may try to transfer to English linguistics. Since the sentence structure of languages varies greatly, it should be no surprise to a teacher if a student whose native language is French or Spanish generates a sentence like "the ball blue" instead of "the blue ball" since many adjectives follow nouns in French in Spanish, unlike English where the adjective precedes the noun. Also, the motivation of SLLs can be reduced if they are discouraged by their trouble in learning a new language as well as if they feel their culture is not integrated into instruction. They also may place different values on writing, some may be much higher than others. Some SLLs may value story telling over written word, especially if their culture embodies a strong oral tradition.

Duke, Nell. TE301, Section 003, Fall 2007, Michigan State University.

New Standards Primary Literacy Committee (2004). Reading and writing grade by grade: Primary literacy standards for kindergarten through third grade. Washington, DC: National Center for Education and the Economy.


"An Introduction to Writing." Special Connections. University of Kansas.
.

Comprehension

Definition: The active process of extracting and constructing meaning out of written language.
Strategies that comprehensive readers use (during and after reading):
-note important details
-predict
-question
-imagine
-clarify
-summarize
-make inferences
-integrate prior knowledge
-self-monitor & self-correct
- engage in metacognition
(see Literacy Reference packet)

What teachers should do:
Teachers should not just assess comprehension, but teach they should teach it. Children are not always aware of the skills they use to read material. They may not know how to monitor their behavior. Students need to be able to expand their vocabulary and concepts about writing.

Reasons for Comprehension Problems:
A student may be struggling with comprehension problems if he/she has a hard time decoding words, if he/she has poor phonemic awareness, or trouble with fluency. If a student is having trouble picking apart words, then it will be difficult to understand the meaning of the whole sentence because once they have figured out the word they may have forgotten what they have read.

Issues for SLLs:
Second Language Learners may have a difficult time comprehending as they may not be as fluent in English as some of their peers. Although some say that SLLs are able to be more phonologically aware because they have so much exposure to differing languages, it can be a very slow process that they embark on when trying to comprehend and doing it fast is another story. Since phonological awareness and letter-sound knowledge are learned in one's native language, it can be difficult to learn a whole new method of processing words and their letters in a new language.


Associated Assessment: Silent-reading comprehension from Comprehensive Reading Inventory
I tried this assessment out on my study student and it was a very effective way of measuring her silent-reading comprehension. I gave her two different stories, one a level 5 and one a level 6. For (only) the level 6 story I read her the prompts before she read the story. She had much more success in the level 6 because of this, even though it was a higher level.

Cooter, Robert B., et al. Comprehensive Reading Inventory: Measuring Reading Development in Regular and Special Education Classrooms. Prentice Hall, 2006.


The New Brunswick Group (D. Strickland, C. Snow, P. Griffin, M. S. Burns, P. McNamara) (2002). Preparing our teachers: Opportunities for better reading instruction. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press.

Duke, Nell. TE301, Section 003, Fall 2007, Michigan State University.

Vocabulary

Vocabulary knowledge includes learning new words, especially those that are academically oriented, and eventually learning the function of those words in terms of grammar and syntax.

Receptive vs. Expressive Vocabulary
-receptive vocabulary refers to words one can understand
-expressive vocabulary refers to words one can generate and use successfully

Associated Assessment: "Third-Grade Fall Vocabulary Assessment" (Handout)-- this assessment is very effective as it requires the student to use the word in a sentence, define the word, or draw a picture. The way to show that they know it is very open-ended.


New Standards Primary Literacy Committee (2004). Reading and writing grade by grade: Primary literacy standards for kindergarten through third grade. Washington, DC: National Center for Education and the Economy.

Paynter, D.E., Bodrova, E. and Doty, J.K. (2005). For the Love of Words: Vocabulary
Instruction that Works. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Fluency

Components:
Accuracy-the measurement of the success of decoding and recognizing words without errors
Automaticity-the rate at which words are read
Prosody-reading with expression
~Prosody includes inflection and pauses, as well as preservation of syntax.
"Evaluating Fluency: Prosody." National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP).
Class handout.
-addresses the different levels where meaningful units are read, from word-by-word reading to grouping meaningful phrases with expression.
Definition & Value:
Fluency is a term that describes the ease with which a reader can decode words and read sentences with accuracy, speed, and meaning (prosody). Fluency is essential to reading comprehension as the less time spent on decoding words, the more time there is for comprehension of the words as a whole (sentence).

Reading Standard 2: Getting the Meaning
-addresses accuracy and fluency across the grades

Associated Assessment: Dibels Oral Reading Fluency (See literacy reference packet)



Duke, Nell. TE301, Section 003, Fall 2007, Michigan State University.

New Standards Primary Literacy Committee (2004). Reading and writing grade by grade: Primary literacy standards for kindergarten through third grade. Washington, DC: National Center for
Education and the Economy.